Res Communis

Pacific Rim National Space Law Summit: United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs

by P.J. Blount with the blog faculty

The Work of the U.N. Office of Outer Space Affairs as it Relates to the Pacific Rim was presented by Dr. Mazlan Othman, Head, U.N. Office of Outer Space Affairs.

Dr. Othman began with a brief overview of the U.N. Office of Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), and the various programs and responsibilities of the office. She said that the mission statement of the office was “To promote international cooperation in the use of outer space to achieve the developmental goals for the benefit of mankind.”

She then moved to the operational priorities of the Office which include 1) discharging responsibilities of Secretary-General, 2) Strengthening the intergovernmental process, 3) supporting sustainable development, 4) Securing global goods, 5) enhancing cooperation and coordination within the United Nations system, and 6) Increasing public awareness in space. Advancing space law and space policy falls under the priority of strengthening intergovernmental processes. She also noted that the Office supports regional mechanisms including those found in the Asia-Pacific region.

She then discussed recent highlights and recent achievements of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS). These include the Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines; the Safety Framework for the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space; the International Committee on Global Navigation Satellite Systems (ICG); work on near earth objects; the International Heliophysical Year 2007; improved registration practice; and a new agenda item on Space and Climate Change.

She then discussed the United Nations space object register, which is now a web based database that is fully searchable. She noted that there are two registers one created under a General Assembly resolution and one created under the Registration Convention. She stated that the register still had some issues, for example USA-193 still appears on the register despite the fact that it was destroyed. This is because UNOOSA had not yet been officially notified by the United States that the satellite had been destroyed thus UNOOSA can not remove it from the register. She said that non-registration still occurs and arises for numerous different reasons such as a lack of coordination when there are multiple launching States; States failing to stay up to date with registrations; satellites launched by commercial entities; satellites launched by academic entities; satellites launched by international organizations; transfer of ownership of satellites; and simple administrative oversights. Despite these problem, she stated that the Office was taking proactive actions towards keeping the register up to date and as a result had seen a 10% increase in registration in the last 18 months.

Pacific Rim National Space Law Summit: United States / 环太平洋国家空间法会议: 美国

by P.J. Blount with the blog faculty

Prof. Joanne Irene Gabrynowicz, National Center for Remote Sensing, Air, and Space Law, University 0f Mississippi School of Law, U.S. gave the next presentation titled Current Status and Recent Developments in United States’ National Space Law and Policy and Its Relevance to Pacific Rim Space Law and Activities.

Prof. Gabrynowicz started with a discussion of telecommunications law in the United States. She said that the law began from early terrestrial applications with the 1927 Radio Act and the Communications Act of 1934, which was revised by the Telecommunications Act of 1996. However, according to Gabrynowicz, telecommunications law in the United States is often viewed as a separate, if related, body of law from that of space law per se, and therefore she did not address telecommunications law in her presentation.

She then engaged in a discussion of four developmental eras of U.S. space law. Her main point was, in the U.S., space law followed technological development. First, there was infrastructure development starting in 1958 with the National Aeronautics and Space Act (Act), which is the Act that created NASA and established the U.S. civil space program. The purpose and policy of the Act declares that U.S. space activities should be for peaceful purposes and creates a civil-military separation for space programs. Second, space commerce was addressed in space law in the 1980s. The law during this period added the commercial sector to the military and civil sectors. Third, she stated that maturing space applications catalyzed U.S. national space law in the 1980s and the 1990s. Space transportation was addressed through the 1984 Commercial Space Launch Act and the 1988 and 2004 Amendments, and remote sensing applications were addressed by the 1984 Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act and the 1992 Land Remote Sensing Policy Act. Finally the 2000s have been defined by regulatory refinement. This regulatory refinement can be found in the public – private spectrum for data access policy, the area of commercial human space flight and how the law has been developed for suborbital flights, and the International Space Station Code of Conduct.

Gabrynowicz then turned to the relevance of United States activities to the Pacific Rim. She stated that spaceports have catalyzed the integration of numerous bodies of law. For instance Alaska, California, and Hawaii are all pursuing spaceports which calls on the integration of federal, state, and municipal laws to be integrated so as to have a fluid working regime. She also discussed Sea Launch and how it required the integration of international and national regimes. Finally, she stated that in the context of export control systems such as the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) and the International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) cause cooperation problems, and Pacific Rim activities should be an invitation for reform of export control policies.

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Chinese translation by Ryan Grimm, J.D. Candidate, Tulane University:
环太平洋国家空间法会议: 美国

大会第二天的第五位发言者是密西西比大学法学院，国家遥感、航空与空间法研究所所长乔安娜•戈伯林纳维兹(Joanne Irene Gabrynowicz)教授。她所演讲的题目为“美国空间法的现状与最新发展及其与环太平洋空间法律和活动的相关性”。

戈伯林纳维兹教授首先介绍的是美国的电讯法。综其所述，该法是由1927年的《无线法》与1934年的《通信法》发展而来的，并在 1996年的《电讯法》的基础上进行了修改。不过，据戈伯林纳维兹教授的介绍，美国电讯法与空间法一般被认证为分属不同的法律领域，所以她在其演讲中并未多提电讯法。

之后，戈伯林纳维兹教授就美国发展空间法史中的四个阶段进行了详尽的介绍：第一阶段是根据1958年的《国家航空航天》所创立的美国民事空间项目及其基础设施，该法强调空间的和平利用，同时空间项目分为民事与军事两大部分。第二阶段是上个世纪80年代，针对商业活动的空间法所进行的弥补充实，即把商业的利益写进已有的民事利益空间法与军事利益的空间法。第三阶段是为上个世纪80年代与90年代的空间法增添了有关空间应用的内容，即1984的《商业空间发射》及1988年与2004年在此基础上修订的针对空间运输的法律条文，而1984年的《地面遥感商业化法》与1992年的《地面遥感政策法》又都是针对着遥感的应用的法律规则。第四阶段是趋向精细化规范的21世纪，如公私数据使用权范围政策、商业载人航天飞行及针对亚轨迹飞行的法律发展，国际空间站行为准则等，都体现了此时的精细化规范的趋势。

随后戈伯林纳维兹教授把话题转到美国空间活动与环太平洋的相关性上。她说空间站推动了各类法律法规的整合。她以美国的阿拉斯加州，加州与夏威夷都希望建立空间站一事为例，为达成这一愿望，联邦政府，州级政府与市级政府须将各类不同层面的法律法规的整合成一套可以为达成这一愿望服务的能够顺利运转的法律制度。此后，她的话题涉及到海上发射，及其如何要求国际法与国内法的整合。最后戈伯林纳维兹教授说针对出口管制制度——尤其是导弹技术控制制度(MTCR)与国际武器贸易条例(ITAR)所带来的合作问题，环太平洋的空间活动与合作可能会提供改革出口管制政策的机会。

Pacific Rim National Space Law Summit: Thailand / 环太平洋国家空间法会议: 泰国

by P.J. Blount with the blog faculty

Prof. Nipant Chitasombat, Director of Commercial Uses of Outer Space Project at Graduate School of Law, Sripatum University, Bangkok, Thailand, presented next on the Current Status and Recent Developments in Thailand’s National Space Law and Policy and Its Relevance to Pacific Rim Space Law and Activities.

Prof. Chitasombat gave brief introduction on national space programmes and activities of Thailand. There are three major activities that Thailand engages in: earth observation, satellite communications, and international cooperation. He said that earth observation was crucial to national security and disaster management, and that the Defense Space Technology Centre (DSTC) handles defense uses of earth observation data.

Next, he moved into a discussion of the policies of Thailand in relation to space activities. He stated that Thailand upholds the principle of the peaceful purposes of outer space. He also said that space activities were a crucial part of Thailand’s comprehensive development strategy, and that they were a fundamental part of its modernization goals. He said these activities were especially necessary for economic development. He said that Thailand had both short term and long term goals as part of the its space programme.

Next, Prof. Chitasombat presented on Thailand’s international space policy. He stated that Thailand embraced the peaceful uses of outer space as well as international cooperation. He noted that it was important to cooperate with both developed and developing countries, and therefore Thailand had cooperation projects with a wide variety of states. He also noted that Thailand has a set of guiding principles that it adheres to in its pursuance of international space cooperation. These principles are followed in addition to obligations from the various treaty to which Thailand is a party. He said that Thailand emphasized cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region.

He said that there is currently no law regulating space activities or launching activities, but the Telecommunications Service Act 2001 and the Patent Act 1979 were important to space activities. He also stated that private contract law is relied upon to conduct Thailand’s space activities, including launches. Based on this, the Thai Government’s official position is that it is not a launching State. He endorsed the enactment of laws in Thailand to govern space activities in the area of inventions, launching, applications, and education.

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Chinese translation by Ryan Grimm, J.D. Candidate, Tulane University:

环太平洋国家空间法会议: 泰国

大会第二天的第四位发言人是泰国曼谷四八达大学法学院商业利用外空项目主任尼潘特•奇塔萨姆拜特(Nipant Chitasombat)教授，其演讲的题目为“泰国空间法的法律现状与最新发展及其与环太平洋空间法律和活动的相关性”。

奇塔萨姆拜特教授首先简短介绍了泰国的空间项目及活动。据其介绍，该国的空间活动可分为三种，即地球观测、卫星通信以及国际合作。其中，地球观测对国家安全和灾害管理是至关重要的。泰国还有国防技术中心(DSTC)负责处理地球观测数据的国防作用。

随后，奇塔萨姆拜特教授谈到有关泰国空间活动的政策，泰国维护和平利用外空的原则。他说空间活动是泰国的综合发展战略与现代化目标的不可缺少的部分，空间活动对经济发展尤其重要。泰国的空间计划既有短期又有长期目标。

接着，奇塔萨姆拜特教授就把话题转到泰国的国际空间政策上去了。他重申泰国是支持和平利用外空以及国际合作的。他表示泰国这种态度对于发达国家与发展中国家都很重要，因此泰国与各国合作各种项目。同时，在参与国际空间合作时，泰国也履行自己所制定的一套指导原则，及各空间条约的缔约国所应履行的义务。泰国尤其强调亚太地区的合作。

据奇塔萨姆拜特教授介绍，泰国目前还没有任何法律规范空间或发射活动、但2001年的《通信服务法》与1979年的《专利法》对空间活起到很重要的作用。泰国的空间活动中主要依赖民事合同法。他建议泰国颁发法律规范有关发明、发射、应用以及教育等空间活动。

Pacific Rim National Space Law Summit: Korea, South / 环太平洋国家空间法会议: 韩国

by P.J. Blount with the blog faculty

The next presentation was Current Status and Recent Developments in Korea’s National Space Law and Policy and Its Relevance to Pacific Rim Space Law and Activities by Prof. Sang-Myon Rhee, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea (South).

Prof. Rhee began by noting that South Korea is a late comer to space activities, and that while it lacked it’s own launch capability, it had multiple satellites launched through cooperation with other States. Its law began with the Air & Space Industry Development Promotion Act (1987). This law has been followed on to with the Space Development Promotion Act (2005-2008), and the Space Liability Act (2008). He also noted that there was a Policy for Regional Cooperation.

He said that the Space Development Promotion Act was meant to implement the space treaties in Korea. It sets out a basic plan for the development of space activities, establishes a national space committee, allows for the designation of Space Development Institutes (the only one currently designated is the Korean Aerospace Research Institute (KARI)), allows for the registration of space objects, requires launch permits, and establishes liability for damage caused by space accidents. The liability provision require insurance for damage caused to third parties. The Act goes on to establish a program for civil space activities and makes provision for the rescue of astronauts and the return of space objects.

Prof. Rhee then discussed Korea’s newly enacted Space Liability Act. The purpose of the act is to “protect the aggrieved party fully.” He said that the act requires the launching party to pay for damage except in certain situations such armed conflict when liability only attaches when there is “willful misconduct.” He stated that the act explicitly states that product liability is not applicable in space. The limit of liability under the act is $200 billion Korea (South) Won (KRW).

He concluded by saying that compared to the advances in technology, the legal regime has developed slowly. He also said there is prospect for changes. He endorsed elevating KARI from a research institute to a national space agency. He noted that the the liability cap was low and, due to currency fluctuation, should probably be in Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) instead of KRW. Finally, he said that there are great prospects for further regional cooperation.

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Chinese translation by Ryan Grimm, J.D. Candidate, Tulane University:

环太平洋国家空间法会议: 韩国

大会第二天的第三位发言人是首尔大学(汉城国立大学)李昌永(音译)教授，其演讲的题目为“韩国空间法的法律现状与最新发展及其与环太平洋空间法律和活动的相关性”。

李教授首先指出韩国应列为较晚发展空间活动的国家。韩国目前虽然还没有自己的发射能力，但是韩国通过与他国的合作发射过了多枚卫星。他说韩国的空间法从1987年的《促进航空航天业法》开始的。该法的出台以后，陆续又有2005至2008年的《促进空间发展法》以及2008年的《空间责任法》出台，另外还出台了一项区域合作政策。

针对《促进空间发展法》，李教授说该法试图在国内执行各个空间条约；由于该法还制定了基本空间活动的发展计划，通过建立了国家空间委员会，允许以“空间发展局”指明相关机构——韩国航空航天研究所。该法管理登记空间物体登记，申请发射许可证以及建立空间事故所造成的损失的责任制度。该法也制定了民事空间活动，太空员的营救以及空间物体的再入程序。

随后，李教授谈起韩国新颁发的《空间责任法》。他说制定该法的目的是为了“完全保护受害方”。除了特殊情况之外，例如武装冲突时，只有“故意处理不当”才负责任，该法皆要求发射方赔偿损失。李教授同时也指出在空间没有产品责任，其最高赔偿金额为两千亿韩币。

最后李教授认为较之科技的进步，相关的法律制度发展相对滞后。他建议把韩国航空航天研究所提升为国家航天局。他还指出韩国的最高赔偿金额较低，而且由于币值波动，应该采用特别提款权(SDRs)，而并非以韩币提款。总之，他认为区域合作的前景相当乐观。

Pacific Rim National Space Law Summit: Japan / 环太平洋国家空间法会议: 日本

by P.J. Blount with the blog faculty

Prof. Setsuko Aoki, Deptartment of Policy Management, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan presented Current Status and Recent Developments in Japan’s National Space Law and Its Relevance to Pacific Rim Space Law and Activities.

Prof. Aoki started with Japan’s space development and its characteristics. She noted that Japan became the 4th nation to join the space faring nations club in 1970, but that it did not have a basic space law until recently. She stated that this was due to the lack of commercialization of space activities. Japan’s interpretation of “peaceful uses” as nonmilitary made it difficult for Japan to develop an indigenous space industry. She also noted that a bilateral agreement controlling satellite procurement also made it difficult to commercialize. In this context, Aoki pointed out that there were generally three reasons that usually led to the adoption of space laws: 1) to implement international space law, 2) to promote space industry, and 3) to fill gaps in international space law. A Space law was not needed due to the insufficient commercial activities in Japan, according to Aoki.

She then gave brief overview of the structure of space policy development. From 1968 to 2001, Space Policy was made by Space Activities Commission (SAC) which was part of the Prime Minister’s Office, but in 2001 SAC was Made part of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). She also gave an overview of the current space management structure.

Next, Aoki stated that Japan was beginning to commercialize space activities. This began when the Japanese Space Agency (JAXA) transferred the H-IIA rocket to Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI), and this made it apparent that Japan was in need of a basic space law, which led the drafting of a basic space. This law was adopted on May 21, 2008. Next she discussed the general content of the law by giving a brief overview of each chapter. She said that the first chapter of the law governs the purpose and general principles of space activities. She discussed in depth Article 2 which governs the peaceful purposes uses of outer space. She said that the article indicates that the non-aggressive use of outer space under the Outer Space Treaty, but that this principle is limited by the Constitution of Japan. Under Article 9 of the Constitution, Japan is allowed to develop the minimum capability for self defense. This differs from the previous state of the law in which Japan interpreted the meanig of peaceful purposes to mean non-military.

Finally, she explained that authorization and supervision regime in Japan that comes from SAC policy and other places. She stated that the regime for launches is sourced through a variety of different regulations and supplemented by launch guidelines that are available from SAC, but that the licensing of satellite activities are through the Radio Law. She said that problems with the system are illustrated in the case study of the transfer of H-IIA to MHI in which both JAXA and a private company are involved in the launch. In this situation she said that the authorization for the activities is presumed due to the relationship of the MHI to JAXA. While this may work in this instance, she noted that problems may occur when a purely private venture engages in space activities. However, the Basic Space Law requires further legislation to govern these space activities and this legislation is currently being drafted.

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Chinese translation by Ryan Grimm, J.D. Candidate, Tulane University:

环太平洋国家空间法会议: 日本

大会第二天的第二位发言人是来自日本东京庆应义塾大学政务学院的青木節子教授，其演讲的题目为“日本空间法的现状与最新发展及其与环太平洋空间法律和活动的相关性”。

青木教授首先介绍了日本的空间发展与特点。她说日本虽然在1970年就成为世界第四进入太空俱乐部的国家，但它最近才出台第一部基本空间法。造成这种状况的主要原因是日本的空间活动一直缺乏了商业化。此外，日本把“和平利用”理解为非军事利用，这种理解也阻碍了空间法在日本国内航天工业的发展。阻碍商业化的障碍还来自于日本与他国有关采购卫星管制的双边协定。综上所述，青木教授认为有三个原因可促使一个国家建立空间法—-其一为执行国际空间法，其二是为促进航天工业的发展，其三是为了弥补国际空间法的漏洞。总而言之，她认为商业化的贫乏导致了日本不活跃的空间活动，也正是由于日本空间活动的不活跃，就造成了出台基本空间法的不必要性。

接下来青木教授简短地介绍了日本的空间政策机构的发展, 自1968至2001年, 空间政策由首相办公室属下的宇宙开发委员会(SAC)制定，但自2001年起，该委员会转到文部科学省(MEXT)的隶属之下。之后，她谈到了空间管理机构的现状。

随后，青木教授把话题转到日本空间活动的商业化，并将其转变的根源归为宇宙航空研究开发机构(JAXA)把H-IIA火箭交给三菱重工业公司去制造的结果，因为只有在此条件下，日本当局才终于发现日本的确缺少一部基本空间法，而这一发现理所当然地促进该法的起草。日本的空间法是于2008年五月九号通过的，该法的第一节规范了空间活动的目的与基本原则，青木教授针对其中和平利用太空一条做了详细介绍，此节中的第二条提到了《外空条约》中的有关非侵略性利用空间原则，但此原则是受到日本《宪章》的约束的，而《宪章》第九条却允许日本发展最低自卫能力，青木教授认为对此条的理解应尽量避免出现那种日本以前把和平利用跟非军事利用混为一谈的曲解。

最后青木教授对日本的来自宇宙开发委员会与其它机关的许可及监督制度进行了解释。她说尽管由不同条例以及宇宙开发委员会所提供的发射指南规范发射活动，但是卫星活动许可证由《无线法》制定的。青木教授以日本政府宇宙航空研究把H-IIA火箭交给三菱重工业制造为例，证明此项制度所造成的问题是：现在H-IIA火箭的发射过程中由政府的宇宙航空研究开发机构与私营企业同时参与，正是由于宇宙航空研究开发机构的参与，因而该项活动被推测为具备许可资格。而单纯由私营集团举办的空间活动，就会被认作不具备许可资格。日本的基本空间法为了规范上述的私营空间活动还需要更多的立法弥补漏洞，据青木教授可知，这种立法正在起草中。

Pacific Rim National Space Law Summit: India / 环太平洋国家空间法会议: 印度

by P.J. Blount with the blog faculty

The first presentation of the second day was given by Prof. V.S. Mani, Director of the School of Law and Governance, Jaipur National University. He presentation was titled Current Status and Recent Developments in India’s National Space Law and Policy and Its Relevance to Pacific Rim Space Law and Activities.

Prof. Mani stated that in the case of India it is important to consider policy as well as law when looking at India’s space program. He attributed this to the rich cultural heritage of India. He said that the foundations for the development of space technology can be traced back to the early days of independent India when the foundation was laid for six science and technology universities.

He next discussed the development of the India Space Research Organization (ISRO). He said that the Indian space program developed in three phases: 1) evaluation of space science and technology to Indian conditions, 2) the experimental phase, and 3) the real space application stage, which saw the development of the commercial arm of ISRO. He said that India is currently seeking to engage in human lunar space flight. He said that ISRO was an off shoot of the Department of the Atomic Energy. The space department was established under Article 73 of the Indian Constitution, which gives the executive power to establish departments. ISRO works cooperatively with many other departments such as those dealing with telecommunications, ocean development, and defense. Mani emphasized the importance of space applications to developing countries. He said that these technologies were very important to the process of development and and addressing the needs of these countries, and that this idea is foundational for the Indian space program.

Finally, he turned to India’s role in space law making. He stated that India played a crucial role in negotiating the major space treaties. He specifically noted the Indian delegate’s role in developing the liability regimes in the Liability Convention. He said that in India, there are several laws that pertain to space, but that is due to the breadth with which the laws were drafted and not necessarily an intent to include space as the subject of these laws. India lacks an overarching space legislation to encompass all its international obligations flowing from its ratification of the space treaties, despite the constitutional mandate under Article 51 to respect all its international obligations arising from international law, and despite the authorisation that Article 253 gives Parliament to enact laws for implementation and incorporation of treaties and decisions of international conferences to which India is a party. Be that as it may, India has by now developed a wide range of laws to cover the telecommunications – an area of immediate concern of India’s space application a policy. He stated that the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority Act and Information Technology Act are important in this respect. The first enactment brings in an independent authority to oversee telecommunications related matters, and if necessary to adjudicate disputes. Also, he said that Article 51 of the Indian Constitution requires India to comply with International obligations, and that the Constitution sets out a regime for the implementation of International law into domestic law. He concluded by pointing out that numerous policies have been promulgated, but no direct laws on space activities in India exist. Prof. Mani stated that a law was needed, but there was work to be done in determining what model India should follow for its law.

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Chinese translation by Ryan Grimm, J.D. Candidate, Tulane University:

环太平洋国家空间法会议: 印度

本会的第二天(5/21/09), 第一个演讲者是斋浦尔国立大学政法学院院长维•斯•梅尼(V.S. Mani)教授，其演讲的题目为“印度空间法的法律现状与最新发展及其与环太平洋空间法律和活动的相关性”。

梅尼教授首先强调要理解印度空间项目不仅要看该国的法律，而且也要考虑该国的政策。这一点跟印度的丰富文化背景密切相关。印度发展空间科技的来源也离不开其建国时期所制定的六所科技大学。

接着，梅尼教授谈到印度空间研究组织(ISRO)的发展。据其介绍，印度空间项目的发展史可分为三个阶段：第一阶段可说成是估计空间科技与印度的现状阶段； 第二阶段是试验性阶段； 第三阶段才是真正空间应用阶段。 后者也包括印度空间研究组织发展其商业部门。现在印度正在试图搞载人月球空间飞行。随后，梅尼教授指出发展是ISRO源头。对此他做了进一步的解释，他说该组织是从印度核能源部门分离出来的，而印度的空间部门又是根据《宪章》第七十二条授权行政院建立部门所建立的，因此ISRO同印度政府的其他部门（例如通信，海洋发展以及国防部门）就须常常合作。梅尼教授强调空间应用科技对发展中国家的重要性。他认为此项技术在国家发展中可起到重要作用，同时还可针对性地解决发展中所碰到的问题，由此可见，这种思路是印度空间项目的基础。

最后梅尼教授谈到印度在国际空间立法中的角色。他认为在主要空间条约的谈判中，印度起到了关键性的作用。他以为制定《责任条约》中的责任制，印度代表所做出的贡献为例，他说尽管在印度法律中，有几条涉及到空间活动，但从这些法律的广泛性来看，以及在它们的起草过程中，空间活动从未被考虑进去。他认为《通信授权法》及印度《宪章》第五十一条（该条要求政府履行其缔约国义务）以及《宪章》所制定的在国内执行国际法的制度，都对印度的空间活动非常重要。梅尼教授说虽然印度颁布过不少空间政策，但还没有一项针对空间活动的专门法律，因而他认为印度确实需要一个空间法。印度有关部门也正在研究筛选那些所须参照的符合印度国情的法律条文，力图研究出一部适合印度的空间法。

Pacific Rim National Space Law Summit: Hawaii / 环太平洋国家空间法会议: 夏威夷

by P.J. Blount with the blog faculty

The second evenings dinner speaker was Jim Crisafulli, Director of the Office of Aerospace Development, Strategic Industries Division, DBEDT/State of Hawaii. He gave a presentation titled Trials, Tribulations, and Triumphs of Aerospace Legislation: the Hawaii Experience.

Crisafulli began his presentation with a summary of the benefits that can be gained from a healthy aerospace industry, and he stated that Hawaii was uniquely poised to be a leader in aerospace. This is due to Hawaii’s mid Pacific location, its unique terrain, the aerospace companies already present in the state, its world class observatories, its space surveillance facilities, the Pacific Missile Range, and the research facilities at the University of Hawaii.

He then turned to the work of Hawaii’s Office of Aerospace Development, which was created by the Hawaii Aerospace Bill of 2007. He said that this year the office has successfully shepherded three bills through the Hawaii legislature. The first HB 994 appropriates funds for the application of a spaceport license from the Federal Aviation Administration to establish space tourism in Hawaii; the second, SB 536, requires the department of business, economic development and tourism to develop a statewide starlight reserve strategy, including an intelligent statewide lighting law, to preserve the quality of the night sky and its associated cultural, scientific, astronomical, natural, and landscape-related values; and the third, SB 537, establishes an aerospace advisory committee to assist the legislature and state agencies in development of the aerospace industry. He noted that two bills (SB 1299: Adds businesses engaged in advanced flight simulator training for pilots, dispatchers, mechanics, or air traffic controllers to the definition of “qualified business” under the state enterprise zone law; SB 1303: Directs the energy resources coordinator to establish a government-industry consortium for funding, research, and development of renewable energy resources) were unsuccessful but would be reintroduced next year. Additionally, he said that the Office was seeking to expand cooperation with NASA, and to this end, Hawaii had signed a Memorandum of Understanding with NASA’s Ames Research Center.

He then moved on to discussing how Hawaii functions as a catalyst for multinational collaboration. His primary example was the Japan-U.S. Science and Technology Space Applications Program (JUSTSAP). He stated that this program works to enhance multinational cooperation through a variety of programs and with a variety of institutions and countries, including other that the U.S., Japan, and other Asia-Pacific nations.

He concluded with a discussion of how regulatory changes could be beneficial to to the aerospace industry and help facilitate multinational cooperation. Specifically, he stated that the International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) were a set of burdensome restrictions that were damaging the aerospace industry, and that the Office of Aerospace Development was working with other states through the Aerospace States Association to effect changes to the regulations.

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Translation by Ryan Grimm, J.D. Candidate, Tulane University:

环太平洋国家空间法会议: 夏威夷

特邀嘉宾夏威夷州政府商务经济旅游发展部门, 战略工业科航天航空厅主任吉姆•克里斯弗利(Jim Crisafulli)先生于昨日晚宴中进行演讲, 其演讲的题目为“航天航空立法之考验, 磨难与成功—–夏威夷之经验谈”。

克里斯弗利先生首先介绍的是健康航天航空业所能带来的利益。他指出由于夏威夷地处太平洋，其独特的地理环境，再加上其所拥有的航天航空的公司，位于世界领先水平的天文台、空间监测设施，美国太平洋导弹靶场以及夏威夷大学的科技设施等优先条件，使夏威夷有机会领先于世界航天航空业。

接下来，克里斯弗利先生谈到他所领导的航天航空厅。举起介绍，该厅是根据2007年《夏威夷航天航空法》而建立的。今年该厅已经成功游说了三项由夏威夷州立法会通过的法案。第一项法案(SB 222)，其目的是为建立夏威夷的太空旅游，拔款为夏威夷申请美国联邦航空管理局所颁发的航天站许可证；第二项法案(SB 536)，其目标是要求夏威夷的商务经济旅游发展部门制定一项全州保护星光计划——主要是要求其制定一项包括智能型全州灯光法在内的法案，为的是保护夜天光以及与其相关的文化、科学、天文、自然环境与景观性的价值。第三项法案(SB 537)，是建立一个航天航空咨询委员会，为的是帮助州立法会与有关部门发展航天航空业。

克里斯弗利先生还提到另外两项法案：一是SB 1299法案修改了本州的企业振兴区法，使该法的有关“资格企业”的定义把从事以高级飞行模拟的方式来培训飞行员、调度员、技工以及空中交通管制员包括了进去，二是SB 1303法案要求州能源资源协调主任建立一个政府企业联合团体，其目标是用各种有效方式扩大可再生能源资源的资金，为的是资助其研究及发展。虽然上述两项法案今年未获得通过，但明年会再次提案。航天航空厅也正在努力地扩大与美国国家航空航天局的合作，到目前为止，其成果是今年已经与国家航空航天局艾姆斯(Ames)研究中心签署了一项协议的备忘录。

随后，克里斯弗利先生又款款谈起夏威夷如何起到促进多国合作的作用，他以日美空间应用科技项目(JUSTSAP)为例，指出该项目以多种方式促进了多国合作，尤其推动了除美国和日本之外的国家与组织。

最后克里斯弗利先生谈到管理的改进会给航天航空业以及多国合作带来什么样的好处，他以美国国际武器贸易条例(ITAR)为例，指出它的管理制度如何难以承担，且已经阻碍航天航空业的发展。针对这个问题，夏威夷的航天航空厅正在跟其他州进行合作，为的是改进该管理制度。

Pacific Rim National Space Law Summit: Hong Kong / 环太平洋国家空间法会议: 香港

by P.J. Blount with the blog faculty

The final presentation of the day was Current Legal Status and Recent Developments in Hong Kong Law and Its Relevance to Pacific Rim Space Law and Activities by Prof. Yun Zhao, Faculty of Law, The University of Hong Kong.

Prof. Zhao stated that the relevant laws were the Hing Kong Outer Space Ordinance and the ordinance governing imports and exports. He started by giving some basic facts on the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and its relationship to mainland China. He also noted that space activities in Hong Kong were limited due to its size, and that they primarily dealt with telecommunications activities.

Before 1997, the UK Outer Space Act Order (Hoing Kong) 1990 was to operative law for Hong Kong. Zhao stated that this implemented the Outer Space Treaty, the Rescue and Return Agreement, The Liability Convention, and the Registration Convention in Hong Kong. He stated that this did not change after Hong Kong became an administrative regime of China in 1997, since china was a member of the four treaties and implemented them into Hong Kong. He said that the Outer Space Ordinance now governs Hong Kong space activities, but Prof. Zhao stated that he saw very few differences in the two laws (outside of some terminology changes).

On the Ordinance, Prof. Zhao noted that it was a very short document, but that it attempted to cover all space activities and that it functioned as a basic space law for Hong Kong. He stated that it defined the terms license, offense, outer space, and space object. He then discussed the licensing regime found in the ordinance, noting that it was very similar to the one found in mainland China. “Outer Space Licenses” are to be issued by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, but Zhao noted that as of yet no licenses had been issued. He noted that the Telecommunications Ordinance might also be relevant to the space law regime, and that it provides for another type of license, a “Telemetry, Tracking, and Control License.”

The Ordinance also requires the Chief Executive to maintain a register of space objects. Prof. Zhao noted that it is incumbent on the the licensee to provide the Chief Executive the relevant information on the launched object. He noted that the Registration Convention and China’s Registration Measures were also relevant to the registration of space activities in Hong Kong. The Chief Executive must transmit registration information to China’s central government, which will then manage international registration.

He stated that Liability was covered in only one article of the Ordinance. It provides that Hong Kong is liable for space activities, but that a company must indemnify the government for damage that it causes. The ordinance also requires licensees to insure themselves against damage.

Prof. Zhao then moved on to discuss the ordinance on the import and export of goods. He said that Hong Kong was a member of numerous international nonproliferation regimes. The strategic control regime is based on four pillars: laws, a licensing system, enforcement, and international cooperation. Under the legal regime licenses must be obtained before the import or export of strategic commodities, and a strict liability standard is adopted for violations of the ordinance. Strategic commodities are defined in the ordinance, and includes launch and delivery systems.

He said that there are few current discussions on the development of the space law in Hong Kong, due to space activities not being important to Hong Kong economically. He did say, though, there may be developments in the commercial side of the law in areas such as telecommunications and possibly space tourism (he noted that there was now a travel agent in Hong Kong that could book tickets on Virgin Galactic’s suborbital flights).

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Chinese translation by Ryan Grimm, J.D. Candidate, Tulane University:

环太平洋国家空间法会议: 香港

今天最后的演讲者是香港大学法律学院副教授赵云教授，其演讲的题目为“香港法的法律现状与最新发展及其与环太平洋空间法律和活动的相关性”。

赵教授首先介绍了香港有关空间活动的法律法规，主要包括《外层空间条例》与香港进出口条例，接着他又介绍了香港特别行政区的现状以及与中国大陆的关系，同时他还指出由于香港相当小，因而导致其空间活动主要是围绕电讯所展开的有限活动，。

据赵教授介绍，1997年前，英国1990年外空法〔香港〕是香港有效的法律。该法在香港执行了《外空公约》《营救协定》《责任公约》《登记公约》等公约；而1997年后，由于中国也是该条约的缔约国，有义务在香港执行条约义务，因此并未改变公约的执行状况。虽然现在有《外层空间条例》规范香港的空间活动但除了一些术语的改变，该条例与原来的外空法基本一致。

随后，赵教授谈到《外层空间条例》。据其介绍，该条例尽管很短，可是它却尽其所能地涵盖了所有空间活动，起到了基本空间法的作用。例如，条例中定义了牌照〔许可证〕条件，触犯，外层空间以及空间物体。接着，他说他认为该条例中有非常类似于中国大陆的许可证制度的条例。虽然香港的“外层空间牌照”由香港行政长官颁发，然而截至今日还未颁发过此类牌照。他还指出，除了《外层空间条例》之外，香港的《电讯条例》与空间法制度也有相关之处，尤其是该条例所提到的另一种牌照—-“遙測追蹤控制牌照”。

虽然《外层空间条例》要求行政长官保持一本空间物体的登记册, 但是赵教授也注意到登记者有责任给行政长官提供发射物体的相关信息，同时《登记公约》与中国的《登记办法》也影响到空间活动在香港的登记这些细节。登记者在香港登记后，行政长官须把登记内容提交给中国中央政府，由后者负责办国际登记手续。

赵教授也说《外层空间条例》中只有一条提到责任问题、该条说香港对空间活动是有责任、但负责空间活动的公司必须赔偿香港政府它所造成的损失。《外层空间条例》也要求持牌人办理损失保险。

接下来赵教授把话题转向进出口条例，他说，香港是多数国际防止扩散体制的缔约者，战略管制体制有四个支柱，即法律、许可证制度、执行以及国际合作。在法律制度下，进出口战略性商品前，必须先办理许可证，而战略性商品在香港进出口条例中，被定义为发射与载体系统。

最后赵教授说，目前在香港由于空间活动对当地经济并不重要，发展空间法并未被讨论，但是赵教授认为商业空间活动，比如电讯与太空旅游，也许会带动香港空间法的发展。据赵教授介绍，有一位香港旅行代理可以在维珍银河公司(Virgin Galactic)的亚轨道飞行订票。

Pacific Rim National Space Law Summit: China and International Law / 环太平洋国家空间法会议: 中国与国际法律

by P.J. Blount with the blog faculty

Prof. Li Shouping, Dean of Space Law Institute of Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China presented The Role of International Law in Chinese Space Law and Its Relevance to Pacific Rim Space Law and Activities.

Prof. Li first discussed the status of Chinese space legislation. He stated that the Chinese legal system, consists of four levels: the constitution, laws, administrative/local legislation, and administrative rules. He stated that the Chinese space law regime is part of the administrative rules, and that it includes the regulations on registration and licensing of space objects. The regime also includes military regulations on export controls.

He also noted space policy documents from Chinese. Li’s opinion is that the two white papers on China’s Space Activities (2000 & 2006) were the most important policy documents, but he also noted the National Defense Industrial Policy, Eleventh Five Year Plan on Space Development, Eleventh Five Year Plan on Space Science Program, Opinions Relevant to the Promotion of the Development of the Satellite Application Industry, and Space Debris Action Plan. He concluded that Chinese Space Regulations are in a stage of administrative management which is oriented by space policies, supplemented by administrative regulation, and lacks integrated space law. He stated that despite the lack of an integrated space law the regime covers most areas of space activities, but that this does make regulation quite complicated. He suggested that improvements could be made in intellectual property regime for commercial space activities, space environment protection, insurance for commercial space activities, and a rescue system for human space flight.

He then turned to the subject of the rule of international law in Chinese space legislation. He stated that China was a state party to the Outer Space Treaty, The Rescue and Return Agreement, The Liability Convention, The Registration convention, and the Asian-Pacific Space Cooperation (APSCO) Convention. he also noted that China was a party to bilateral agreements and understandings that helped to govern China’s space activities. He said that these agreements directly promoted Chinese space legislation. For instance the Chinese regulation on registration states that its purpose is to fulfill China’s obligation under the Registration Convention. He also noted that much of the content found in the current measures originate in the Registration Convention, which indicates its profound effect. He stated that international treaties and other international documents facilitated the research and formulation of Chinese space policies and legislation. He pointed to the IADC regulations and their effect on China’s Space Debris Action Plan (2006-2010).

Finally, he turned to the relevance of Pacific Rim activities to China’s space law legislation. He stated that other Pacific Rim nations give a model for future Chinese legislation and give an important reference for drafters of such a law. He then noted that China’s policy of peaceful uses of outer space was important to Pacific Rim activities. Specifically, the draft treaty on space weapons submitted by China and the Russian Federation to the Conference on Disarmament could have a lasting effect on Pacific Rim activities.

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Chinese translation by Ryan Grimm, J.D. Candidate, Tulane University:

环太平洋国家空间法会议: 中国与国际法律

第五位发言的是北京理工大学法学院教授，北京理工大学空间法研究所所长李寿平教授。他发表了题为“国际法在中国空间法中的作用及其对环太平洋国家空间法和空间活动的影响”的演讲。

李教授首先介绍了中国空间立法的现状，中国的法律体系有四个层级，即宪法、法律、行政法规与地方法规、部门规章等。而中国的有关空间的法律法规，包括登记与许可证空间物体的办法都属于部门规章，有关空间的法律法规也包括了军品出口条例。

李教授还对中国的航天政策文件进行了介绍，他认为虽然《2000年中国的航天》白皮书和《2006年中国的航天》白皮书是最重要的政策文件，可是其他的文件也相当重要，例如《国防科技工业产业政策纲要》、《航天发展“十一五”规划》、《“十一五”空间科学发展规划》、《关于促进卫星应用产业发展的若干意见》以及《空间碎片行动计划（2006－2010》。李教授说中国空间法规正处于一种以航天政策为主、以规章为辅的行政管理阶段，直至今日，并未出炉综合性空间法。李教授认为即使中国缺少一套综合性空间法、但现有的空间法律法规却涵盖了大部分的空间活动，只是这个体系相当复杂。他建议在以下几个方面进行改善，即商业空间活动的有关知识产权制度，空间环境保护，商业空间活动的保险以及载人航天飞行的营救系统等。

然后李教授就把话题转到了国际法对中国空间立法的影响上去。他说中国是《外空公约》《营救协定》《责任公约》《登记公约》与《亚太空间合作组织公约》的缔约国，同时也签署了一系列有助于规范中国的空间活动的双边协定与备忘录，而上述的公约与协定又都直接促进了中国空间的立法，比如中国制定登记办法的明确立法目的就是为了履行《登记公约》缔约国义务，而此办法的具体内容主要也同样来自《登记公约》，由此可见，这也足以证明公约对国内空间立法的深远影响。李教授还说国际公约与其他国际文件促进了中国研究及制定国内空间政策与立法，这一点从机构间空间碎片协调委员会(IADC)的规定对中国制定2006至2020年空间粹片行动计划的影响上看就足以证明彼此之间的关系。

最后李教授谈了环太平洋的空间活动与中国空间立法的相关性。他认为其他环太平洋国家的有关法律法规对中国未来的空间立法具有重要的借鉴作用，而中国的和平利用外空政策也影响了环太平洋空间活动，尤其是中国与俄罗斯联合向裁军谈判会议提交的防止外空放置武器草案可能对环太平洋空间活动会发生深远的影响。